Slavery

 

Slavery in the Indian Subcontinent

Slavery in the Indian subcontinent evolved over thousands of years, reflecting the region’s shifting political landscapes and extensive global connections. Unlike the transatlantic slave system, slavery in South Asia took a variety of forms, often embedded in caste systems, warfare, and economic structures. Although legally abolished by the British in 1843, its legacies continue in modern forms such as bonded labor. Understanding this history offers insight into the social hierarchies and power dynamics that shaped South Asian societies.

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Early Vedic and Classical Structures

In early Indo-Aryan society, terms such as dasa and dasyu referred to subjugated groups, some of whom became bonded laborers or servants. Ancient treatises mention individuals entering servitude due to:

• debt

• famine

• warfare

• penal punishment

This suggests that slavery, while present, was not always chattel slavery but often linked to labor obligations and social dependency.

Mauryan Legal Codification

Kautilya’s Arthashastra offers one of the earliest administrative frameworks for slavery. It outlines:

• regulations for purchase and sale

• protections against extreme abuse

• rights to remuneration in some occupations

• possibilities for manumission

This illustrates that even in antiquity, the state attempted to formalize and sometimes restrain the institution.

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 Islamic Sultanates and the Military Slave System

With the establishment of Turkic and Afghan kingdoms in North India, slavery expanded through military and political channels. The Delhi Sultanate imported Turkic and Central Asian slaves who were trained as soldiers or administrators. Some slave officers ascended to high positions, demonstrating that enslavement could paradoxically provide paths to power within certain political structures.

 Domestic Labor and Gendered Experiences

Domestic slavery was common in both Hindu and Muslim households. Women in particular were employed in:

• household service

• handicraft production

• palace administration

• royal harems

The role of gender in slavery is significant, as women’s bodies and labor were commodified in ways distinct from men.

War Captivity and Regional Politics

Large-scale warfare produced many captives. During conquests by the Ghaznavids, Ghorids, and later the Mughals, defeated populations were sometimes enslaved or transported to Central Asian markets. Enslavement was both an economic resource and a symbol of political domination.

The Indian Ocean Slave Trade

The subcontinent was part of a wider maritime trade network linking Africa, Arabia, and Southeast Asia. African slaves—known as Habshi or Siddi—served as soldiers, sailors, guards, and court officials. Some rose to prominence, such as Malik Ambar in the Deccan, indicating mobility within elite structures.

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Slavery under the Mughal Empire

Although the Mughal Empire inherited earlier systems, it introduced administrative reforms that altered the institution’s character. Slaves worked in:

• royal workshops

• administrative households

• agricultural estates

• elite domestic environments

Educated slaves often became trusted scribes, guards, or advisers. While the Mughal elite relied heavily on slave labor, religious and ethical teachings also encouraged humane treatment and manumission.

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Colonial Transformations and Abolition

European Involvement

The Portuguese, Dutch, and French engaged actively in the Indian Ocean slave trade, transporting enslaved individuals across Asia and Africa. The British East India Company initially tolerated or taxed slavery, recognizing it as part of the local social order.

 British Abolition Policies

Pressure from missionaries and reformers, combined with changing economic priorities, led to the formal abolition of slavery in India through the Indian Slavery Act of 1843. Despite this legal milestone, coercive labor practices persisted in disguised forms such as:

• indentured labor

• bonded labor

• sharecropping systems

Thus, abolition did not immediately end exploitation.

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 Post-Colonial Legacies

After independence, South Asian nations enacted stricter laws against forced labor, trafficking, and bondage. Nevertheless, modern slavery-like practices persist, particularly in:

• agriculture

• brick kilns

• domestic work

• small-scale manufacturing

These conditions stem from structural inequalities, caste hierarchies, poverty, and limited legal enforcement.

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Conclusion

The history of slavery in the Indian subcontinent reveals a deeply embedded system that evolved from ancient forms of servitude to complex medieval military and domestic structures, and later to globalized maritime trade networks. While colonial abolition laws ended slavery legally, the social and economic conditions that allowed coercive labor to flourish remain influential. Understanding this long trajectory highlights the region’s struggles with inequality and the ongoing need for strong policies to protect vulnerable populations.